15 March 2011, Volume 30 Issue 2

    

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Preface
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  Drug discovery from fungal metabolites: a review of the papers in this monographical issue of Mycosystema concerned with the natural resources, problems and strategies

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 151-157.

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  This monographical issue of Mycosystema contains 7 in-depth reviews, 19 research articles and 2 short communications on the latest and most important progress in the resources, problems and strategies for drug discovery from fungal metabolites. It covers the current progress and latest achievements on production of taxol by entophytic fungi, strategies and latest developments on culturing cordycepin-producing fungi, regulation strategies on biosynthesis of triterpenoids and extracellular polysaccharides produced by Ganoderma lucidum, current progress on bioactive metabolites from the fungi grown in fresh and sea water. This issue of Mycosystema also involves the isolation and identification of entophytic fungi, isolation of metabolites from sea-grown fungi, the culture for macro-fungi and isolation and bioassay of their metabolites, and research of methodology on determining polyphenols, proteomics and biotransformation. These reviews and research articles represent the most updated progress in drug discovery from fungal metabolites in China, and provide insights into up-regulation of bioactive fungal metabolites, isolation and structure identification of these metabolites as well as their pharmacological studies.
Review
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  Recent progresses in the studies of taxol and taxane-producing fungi

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 158-167.

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  Paclitaxel (taxol?), a member of taxane family, has become a widely used anticancer drug in clinic. The industrial fermentation of taxol by fungi promises an effective way to increase the production and supply of the drug in the market. This review summarizes the latest results of the biodiversity of taxol-producing fungi, the fungal taxonomy, purification and characterization of fungal taxol, and molecular genetics of taxol biosynthesis.
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  Recent research advances on endophytic fungi producing taxol

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 168-179.

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  Taxol with high efficiency, low toxicity and broad-spectrum is one of the most effective natural anti-cancer drugs for the coming 20 years. Recent studies have found that taxol from the fermentation of endophytic fungi of plants has been demonstrated a high potential for efficient production of taxol. Summarize recent research advances in the technique of fermentation producing taxol including biodiversity of taxol-producing endophytic fungi, isolation of the fungi, and the techniques of taxol extraction. The pathways to improve the production of taxol by endophytic fungal were also comprehensively discussed. Along with the development of molecular biology techniques and fermentation engineering, the large-scale fermentation to produce taxol is hopefully realizable.
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  Cordycepin research and exploitation: progress and problems

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 180-190.

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  Cordycepin, the first nucleoside antibiotic isolated from Fungi, has been a hotspot nowadays due to a variety of bio-activities, such as antimicrobial, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory activities and so on. The previous studies on cordycepin, including the fungal sources, extraction, purification and molecular biology, were summarized in the present paper. The patents on cordycepin both at home and abroad have also been analyzed and evaluated. It was suggested that broadening the fungal strain sources, optimizing the method of extraction and purification as well as deepening the research on biosynthesis pathway are useful to overcome the bottleneck in cordycepin production. In addition, the importance of the scientific names used in the study of mycology was emphasized.
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  Pharmacological research progress of cordycepin

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 191-197.

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  Cordycepin (3′-deoxyadenosine), a nucleoside analog, is reported to possess many pharmacological activities. It was regarded as the agent responsible for immunological regulation, anti-tumor, antifungal action, anti-virus, anti-leukemia, antidiabetics and hypolipidaemic activities. This is a review dealing with the problems in the clinical application, the prospects of future development and the pharmacological activities of cordycepin.
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  Biosynthesis and fermentation control of polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 198-205.

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  Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GPS) are of the key pharmacologically active components of this medicinal fungus. Structure-activity relationship, constituents of monosaccharides of GPS, and basic biosynthetic pathways of the key GPS, IPS-1-1, as well as strategies and methods of fermentation control of GPS were reviewed. Further, future orientation in development of biosynthesis and fermentation control of GPS was discussed.
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  Recent progress in the research on bioactive substances from fresh water fungi

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 206-217.

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  The freshwater fungi are being accepted as a potentially new source of secondary metabolites with megadiverse structures and promissory biological activities, although many of them remain little or under-explored as yet. The present review documented the chemical structures and bioactivities of 127 freshwater fungal metabolites thus far identified.
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  A review on studies of secondary metabolites from marine fungi

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 218-228.

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  Marine fungi are a kind of important source for active marine natural products. Up to now, 1,117 new compounds have been isolated and identified from the fermentation broth of marine fungi. In this paper, the history, status quo, methods and issues in studying secondary metabolites from marine fungi are presented. The compounds originated from marine fungi and their perspective in drug discovery were also discussed.
Papers
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  Liquid culture conditions for promoting cordycepin secreted from Cordyceps militaris mycelia

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 229-234.

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  Liquid culture conditions for promoting Cordyceps militaris mycelia to secrete cordycepin were studied in order to understand the appropriate carbon and nitrogen sources and their suitable concentration, optimal pH value, cultivation temperature, shaking speed, and cultivation period. The purpose of this study is to apply these conditions to industrial production of cordycepin. Results showed that D-fructose and peptone are the appropirate carbon and nitrogen sources with an optimal concentration of 10g/L and 15g/L, respectively. The optimal initial pH, cultivation temperature, shaking speed and cultivation period were 7.0, 24℃, 180r/min and 9 days respectively. By use of these culture conditions, the content of cordycepin in the culture fluid attained to 0.537g/L.
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  A study on optimal fermentation of an endophytic fungus producing taxol

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 235-241.

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  Taxol with high efficiency and low toxicity to normal cells and broad-spectrum in inhibiting the growth of tumor cells has been widely used against breast cancer, uterine cancer and other cancers. Recent studies have found that extracting taxol from endophytic fungi has been demonstrated to be a high potential for efficient production of taxol. Taxus was selected as the material for the studies. A total of 420 endophytic fungal was isolated from the roots, stems, leaves, seeds of Taxus at different times and places. The fungus strain XC1-07 isolated from the inner bark of Taxus chinensis was confirmed to produce taxol by thin layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The strain XC1-07 has a taxol yield reaching 780μg/L when grown in potato dextrose liquid medium. The optimal carbon and nitrogen source for mycelium fermentation were maltose and ammonium nitrate respectively. The yield of taxol reached up to 1,124.34μg/L after being incubated in the optimal medium containing 10g/L ammonium nitrate, 90g/L maltose, 1.0g/L magnesium sulfate with pH6. This is the highest yield of taxol production by fermentation of endophytic fungi until now.
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  Cloning of a sterol 14α-demethylase gene and the effects of over-expression of the gene on biological synthesis of triterpenes in Ganoderma lucidum

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 242-248.

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  Ganoderma lucidum has been used for centuries to cure various human diseases in our country, and triterpenoids are the most important pharmacologically active constituents of the fungus. Sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) is one of the key enzymes involved in the biological synthesis processes of triterpenes. Degenerate primers were designed according to conservative sites of protein sequences from related species and a specific DNA fragment was obtained, then full length of Gl-cyp51 was obtained using traditional methods. Genomic DNA was 1,981bp and cDNA was 1,635bp. The ORF encoded a 544-amino acid polypeptide with a theoretical pI of 6.36 and a theoretical molecular mass of 61.99kDa. The Gl-cyp51 complete cDNA was ligated to the plasmid pGl-GPD. By successful Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation to G. lucidum, we realized Gl-cyp51 over expression transforments. We found that the transcript level of Gl-cyp51 was over expressed and triterpenes production was incrased. Further more, the transcript level of genes (Gl-aact, Gl-hmgr and Gl-ls) involved in the biosynthesis of triterpenes were also increased.
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  Effects of extracts from different phytomedicines on cell growth and intracellular triterpenoids formation of Ganoderma lucidum in submerged fermentation

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 249-254.

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  The effects of water and ethanol extracts from different phytomedicines on mycelial growth and intracellular triterpenoids (ITS) formation of Ganoderma lucidum in submerged fermentation were studied. The medicinal fungus G. lucidum was inoculated into the basal media with and without addition of extract of phytomedicines, and then cultured for 7d. The results showed that both water extracts from Lonicera japonica and Lycium chinensis at 100mg/L increased mycelial biomass production of G. lucidium (p<0.05); while the water extract from Forsythia suspensa had significantly stimulatory effects on both the mycelial growth and ITS production, and the ITS yield increased from (192.54±8.99)mg/L to (302.52±3.79)mg/L when the concentration of the water extract was 400mg/L. In addition, ethanol extracts from L. japonica and L. chinensis at 200mg/L showed positive effects on the mycelial growth, and the ethanol extract from L. chinensis displayed stimulatory effects on ITS production. However, both the water extracts and ethanol extracts from Isatis tinctoria and Ginkgo biloba showed the inhibitory effects on the mycelial growth and ITS production of G. lucidium.
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  Producing huperzine A by an endophytic fungus from Huperzia serrata

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 255-262.

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  A total of fifty-three endophytic fungal isolates were obtained from fresh leaves of Huperzia serrata, a traditional Chinese medicinal plant. The strain LF40 was found to produce huperzine A (HupA) in potato dextrose broth (PDB) with a yield of 80.1μg /gdcw, based on TLC, HPLC and ESI-MS detection. The inhibition effects of TLC purified fungal HupA from strain LF40 was similar to authentic HupA. Morphological characteristics and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences show that the strain LF40 was Aspergillus flavus LF40.
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  Metabolites of endophytic fungus Pestalotiopsis clavispora isolated from the stem of Bruguiera sexangula

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 263-267.

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  Nine known compounds, 3β,22β,24-trihydroxy-olean-12-ene, ursolic acid, 3-hydroxy-4-methoxystyrene, diisobutyl phthalate, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylethanol, p-tyrosol, 3β-hydroxy-5α,8α-epidioxyergosta-6,22-diene, ergosta-4,6,8(14),22-tetraen-3-one and thymidine, were isolated from the ethyl acetate extraction of fermentation broth of Pestalotiopsis clavispora, an endophyte in the stems of Bruguiera sexangula. The structures of these compounds were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis. These compounds were isolated for the first time from endophytic fungus Pestalotiopsis clavispora.
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  Purification, identification and antitumor activities of secondary metabolites from marine fungus Eutypella scoparia FS26

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 268-274.

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  By various chromatographic methods (silica gel, reverse silica gel, Sephadex LH-20 and so on) and recrystallization, six compounds were isolated from the culture of the marine fungus Eutypella scoparia, which was isolated from the sediment of the South China Sea. By extensive NMR analysis as well as comparison with literature reports, the structures of compounds 1?6 were established as (3S,3aR,7aS)-3a,4,5,7a-tetrahydro-3,6-dimethylbenzofuran-2(3H)-one (1), rel-(3S,6S,7R,10R)-7,10-epoxy-3,7,11- trimethyldodec-1-ene-3,6,11-triol (2), euphorbol (3), tuberoside (4), phenochalasin B (5) and uracil (6). Compound 5, which belongs to cytochalasan family, displayed notable cytotoxic activities on MCF-7, NCI-H460 and SF-268 cell growth with IC50 values of 0.022μmol/L, 0.073μmol/L and 0.059μmol/L respectively.
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  Activity changes of several extracellular enzymes in liquid culture of Phellinus mori

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 275-280.

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  Phellinus mori had rich extracellular enzymes. The amylase activity in liquid culture of the fungus had the maximum value on day 7. Pectinase showed two peaks on day 9 and 12, respectively. The maximum value of carboxymethyl cellulose enzyme (CMCase) activity appeared on day 10. The laccase reached its peak on day 9. It was indicated that Phellinus mori preferred starch to pectin, cellulose and lignin. The protein concentration had two peaks on day 8 and 11, respectively. The reducing sugar concentration decreased gradually with the incubation time, and the pH value decreased on days 2-7 but increased after day 8.
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  Free radical scavenging activities of phenolic and flavonoid compounds from fruiting body of Phellinus vaninii

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 281-287.

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  Five compounds were isolated from the fruiting body of Phellinus vaninii by silica gel and C18 chromatography for the first time. Their structures were identified by NMR spectroscopic methods. The identified compounds are sakuranetin, 7-methoxy-dihydrokaempferol, dihydrokaempferol, 4-(3,4-dihydro-xyphenyl)-3-buten-2-one and hispolon. In vitro 1,1-diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl radical (·DPPH), superoxide anion radical (·O2?) and hydroxyl radical (·OH) test systems were established to study the free radical scavenging activities of five compounds. The results showed that ·DPPH radical scavenging ratio of 4-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-3-butene-2-one and hispolon was 92% and 93%, ·OH radical scavenging ratio was 90% and 95%, while ·O2? radical scavenging ratio was 70% and 77% at 100μg/mL, respectively. The ·O2? radical scavenging ratio of dihydrokaempferol was 39%. Nevertheless, all the free radical scavenging ratio of sakuranetin and 7-methoxy-dihydrokaempferol was less than 30%. The free radical scavenging activities of two phenolic compounds were stronger than those of three flavonoid compounds. All the free radical scavenging abilities of the five compounds were dependent on their concentrations.
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  Inhibitory effects of Phellinus baumii polysaccharide on the proliferation and invasion of HepG2 cell

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 288-294.

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  The inhibitory effects of Phellinus baumii polysaccharide PLP60-B1 on the proliferation and invasion of HepG2 cancer cells were investigated. The homogeneous Phellinus baumii polysaccharide PLP60-B1 having promoting effects on lymphocyte proliferation was obtained by ethanol precipitation and purified by DEAE-Sepharose F.F. and Sephacryl S-200. MTT assay and flow cytometry showed that PLP60-B1 inhibited cell proliferation as well as colony formation of HepG2 cells through the S-phase cell cycle arrest, and the homogeneous polysaccharide also demonstrated the remarkably inhibition of adhesion and invasion in HepG2 cells.
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  Optimization on determination of polyphenols from Inonotus obliquus by Folin-Ciocalteu colorimetry

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 295-304.

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  A quantitative method for the determination of polyphenols in sclerotia or mycelia of Inonotus obliquus was studied by orthogonal and single factor experiment with Folin-Ciocalteu reagent and standard of Gallic acid. The results showed that the content of polyphenols in I. obliquus can be well calculated according to their colorimetric absorption at 750nm by applying Folin-Ciocalteu reagent 0.3mL and 10% Na2CO3 0.6mL at 25℃ for 30min. The linear range of calibration curve was 0.0032－0.0256mg/mL for the gallic acid (r2=0.9975). Using the optimezed method, the content of polyphenols in sclerotia was determinated to be (72.05±0.08)mg/g and mycelia to be (52.76±0.06)mg/g (n=6). The average recovery was 98.95% (RSD=1.27%). Therefore, the optimized method can dectect the content of polyphenols in I. obliquus in a swift, accurate and practical way with high reproducibility.
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  Screening of the active fungal strains with high specificity to biotransform ginsenoside Rb1 into Rd

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 305-311.

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  During July and October in 2009, 45 samples of ginseng roots and rhizosphere soil were collected in medicinal plant growing areas of Liaoning and Jilin Provinces. A total of 105 fungal strains were isolated, and 48 species belonging to 15 genera were identified. Twenty-five strains showing positive activity of transforming total ginsenosides were screened. Among them strains SR87 and SR105 were found to have the specificity to transform ginsenoside Rb1 into ginsenoside Rd by using TLC and HPLC methods. Strain SR87 was identified as Zygorhynchus moelleri, and strain SR105 as Absidia glauca. They were shown to possess commercial potential for transformation of Rb1 into Rd.
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  Differential expression of analgesic proteins in two Paecilomyces gunnii isolates

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 312-318.

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  Two isolates of Paecilomyces gunnii, anamorph of Cordyceps gunnii, with and without producing analgesic activity, were tested by using proteomic analysis in order to find the correlation between protein differential expression and analgesic activity. The results showed that expression of 51 protein spots significantly increased in the active isolate HZJ-1. Among the spots, structures of 39 proteins with various functions were identified. Most of the proteins were related to metabolism, and the NADP-specific glutamate dehydrogenase might mediate long-term depression of synaptic transmission and reduce pain. The functions of several conserved hypothetical proteins have not been reported, and are needed for further studies.
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  The gastric protective effects of Morchella conica on the ethanol- induced gastric mucosal lesion in rats

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 319-324.

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  The effects of Morchella conica mycelial extract on the ethanol-induced gastric mucosal lesion of rats in vivo were investigated. The gastric mucosal lesion was induced by 95% ethanol, the lesion index was measured and the superoxide dismutase (SOD), malonaldehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH) content in the gastric issues were tested. The gastric acid, pepsin and gastric mucus were detected in ligated pyloru rats. The result showed that the middle dose and high dose of M. conica mycelial extract could reduce the lesion index of gastric mucosal (p<0.05); M. conica did not inhibit the gastric secretion (p>0.05) but promoted the pepsin and gastric mucus secretion (p<0.05); The SOD activity and the GSH content were reduced, and the MDA content was increased after the rats were gavages by 95% ethanol, but these situations were reversed in M. conica treated groups. These results indicated that protective effects of M. conica against the ethanol induced gastric lesions were related to its effects of promoting gastric mucus and improving the antioxidant activity.
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  Effect of Morchella conica mycelial water extract on experimental gastric ulcer

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 325-330.

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  To investigate the effects of water extract from Morchella conica mycelium on four kinds of experimental gastric ulcer models, four kinds of model animals with experimental gastric ulcer were established. The gastric ulcer index, gastric juice volume and acidity were measured in pyloric ligation models. The gastric ulcer index was measured in acetic acid-buming, alcohol and water-immersion-restraint stress of gastric ulcer models. The results show that different doses of Morchella mycelium water extract inhibit gastric acid secretion, reduce gastric juice acidity and promote healing of ulcer. Therefore, Morchella mycelium water extract possesses the inhibitory and protective effect on experimental gastric ulcer.
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  Analysis of antioxidant components of Grifola frondosa solid fermented substrates

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 331-337.

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  Grifola frondosa was cultured on the solid medium using oat, wheat bran, soybeans, corn, rice and buckwheat as substrates. The best fermentation time was determined and antioxidant components of substrate was analyzed. The results show that the best antioxidant fermentation substrate of Grifola frondosa was oats and soybean (16.25% oats and 83.75% soybean), and the best fermentation time was 8d. The antioxidant components of Grifola frondosa in oat and soybean medium were rich in varieties and high in contents, which included flavonoids 40.86μg/g, total triterpenoid 5.94mg/g, total polyphenols 8.51mg/g, reducing sugar 13.10mg/g, anthocyanins 70.23μg/g, Vitamin C 24.57mg/g, Vitamin E 0.33mg/g. and glutathione (GSH) 0.84g/g, and SOD activity was 299.74U/g.
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  Compositions and antioxidant activities of soybean substrate during solid-state fermentation by Cordyceps militaris

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 338-342.

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  The solid-state fermentation of Cordyceps militaris using soybean substrate was performed. The kinetic changes of pH value, enzyme activities, the contents of total and reducing sugar, total phenols and radical scavenging abilities were analyzed. The results showed that the pH value, amylase and protease activities increased in the early stage and decreased in the late stage during the fermentation. Contrarily, the contents of soluble total sugar, total phenols, radical scavenging abilities of ABTS (2,2-azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid diammonium salt) and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) reaction decreased in the early stage, and increased in the late stage and reached the maximum in the 22nd day of the fermentation. The contents of reducing sugar gradually decreased during the fermentation. The product after solid-state fermentation had potential to develop food materials and antioxidant foods.
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  Effects of Eurotium cristatum on tea quality and antioxidant activity

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 343-348.

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  Eurotium cristatum isolated from natural “Fu” brick tea was inoculated into pan-fired green tea. After fermentation of 30 days, the taste and chemical components of the tea were measured. The antioxidant activity of the fermented tea was also evaluated by using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)hydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2’-azinobis- (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonate) (ABTS). The results showed that the quality of the fermented tea was improved, and the treatment reduced the bitter taste and increased the content of theaflavin and thearubin. The scavenging abilities of the fermented tea reached 75% and 56% respectively in determination by DPPH and ABTS radical methods, and were similar to those of “Fu” brick tea produced naturally from Hunan Province, or reached 64.7% and 80.6%, and were higher than those of “Fu” brick tea produced naturally from Zhejiang Province.
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  Anti-obesity function of naturally and artificially Eurotium cristatum-fermented "fu" brick tea

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 349-354.

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  Both naturally and artificially Eurotium cristatum-fermented “fu” brick tea can inhibit the body weight, fat wet weight, fat coefficient, triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TC) of obese Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, and HDL-C of the rats improve significantly. The anti-obesity effect of artificial fermentation “fu” brick tea is close to or even superior to that of natural fermentation “fu” brick tea.
short communications
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  Antioxidant activities of extracts from the physically modified fruiting bodies of Agrocybe cylindracea in vitro

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 355-360.

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  The extracts from the physically modified fruiting bodies of Agrocybe cylindracea were analyzed for their antioxidant activities. The results showed that modifying the samples using ultra high pressure led to a higher free radical scavenging activity, reducing power, chelating activity, total antioxidant activity and contents of total phenols than those found in the controlled samples. Superfine grinding to the samples resulted in less antioxidant activities than those treated by ultra high pressure, but higher than those observed in the control. The concentration of the extracts was directly related to the proportion to the antioxidant effect. Physical modification enhanced antioxidant function by shifting the content and texture of materials.
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  Chemical constituents from basidiocarps of Phellinus baumii

  Mycosystema. 2011, 30(2): 361-365.

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  Eight compounds were isolated from basidiocarps of Phellinus baumii by silica gel and Sephadex LH-20 chromatography. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods including NMR and MS. The identified compounds are ergosta-7,22-diene-3-one, ergosta-4,6,8,22-tetraen-3-one, ergosterol, ergosterol peroxide, 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl-1-dodecyloctade- canoate, hispolon, 4-(3,4- dihydroxyphenyl)-3-buten-2-one and hispidin.